Screening measures – mental health symptoms
This page contains information about six measures used to screen for mental health symptoms.
Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D)
About: Developed in the US.
Original intended use: Epidemiological studies.
What it measures: Depression symptoms over the past week and the extent of symptoms. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults in the general population.
Number of items: 20.
Example of item: In the past week: I was bothered by things that don’t usually bother me.
Response type: Frequency rated on a scale.
Administration: Can be self-completed by people or administered via telephone. Takes about 5 minutes.
Used in large general population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? No, but is one of the most used mental health measures internationally.
Versions: A revised version is available with various updates.
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21)
About: Developed to measure negative emotions.
Original intended use: Clinical settings and research.
What it measures: Symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress over the past week. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults and adolescents (14+) in the general population and clinical settings.
Number of items: 21.
Example of item: I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all.
Response type: Applicability of the statement rated on a scale.
Administration: Can be self-completed by people. Takes about 5 to 15 minutes.
Used in large general population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? No, used in targeted group surveys rather than general population studies.
Versions: A longer version is also available, the DASS-42.
Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7)
About: Developed in the US.
Original intended use: Clinical settings, particularly primary care.
What it measures: Anxiety symptoms in the past 2 weeks. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults in the general population and clinical settings.
Number of questions: 7.
Example of question: Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by: feeling nervous, anxious or on edge?
Response type: Frequency rated on a scale.
Administration: Self-completed by people. Takes about 1 to 2 minutes.
Used in large population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? Yes, is used in the New Zealand Health Survey mental health module.
Versions: A shorter screening version is also available, the GAD-2.
General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12)
About: Developed to measure distress and wellbeing.
Original intended use: Epidemiological studies.
What it measures: Recent symptoms of depression and anxiety. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults in the general population and clinical settings.
Number of questions: 12.
Example of question: Have you recently: felt you couldn’t overcome your difficulties?
Response type: Frequency rated on a scale, compared to how people usually feel.
Administration: Can be self-completed by people or administered by any health practitioner. Takes about 5 to 15 minutes.
Used in large population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? No.
Versions: A few longer versions are available including the GHQ-28 and GHQ-30.
Kessler 10 (K10)
About: Developed to identify people in need of support.
Original intended use: Epidemiological studies.
What it measures: Psychological distress related to anxiety and depression in the past 4 weeks. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults in the general population or clinical settings.
Number of questions: 10.
Example of question: How much of the time during the past 4 weeks did you feel tired out for no good reason?
Response type: Frequency rated on a scale.
Administration: Can be self-completed by people or administered by any worker. Takes less than 10 minutes.
Used in large population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? Yes, used yearly in the New Zealand Health Survey and in Te Rau Hinengaro.
Versions: A short version is also often used, the K6.
Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)
About: Part of a family of scales looking at a range of experiences. PHQ-9 specifically focusses on depression symptoms.
Original intended use: Clinical settings, particularly primary care.
What it measures: Symptoms of depression in the past 2 weeks and extent of symptoms. Screening only, does not indicate if people meet diagnostic criteria.
Who it’s for: Adults in the general population or clinical settings.
Number of questions: 9.
Example of question: Over the last 2 weeks, how often have you been bothered by any of the following problems: little interest or pleasure in doing things?
Response type: Frequency rated on a scale.
Administration: Can be self-completed by people or administered by a clinician. Takes about 5 to 10 minutes.
Used in large population studies in Aotearoa New Zealand? Yes, used as part of the PHQ-SADS scale in the New Zealand Health Survey mental health module.
Versions: Various length versions available, collectively known as the PHQ family of measures.
